Acid Rain And Deposition

WILLIAM B. GRANT

1 INTRODUCTION Early Concern

The first mention of acid rain in print was by Robert Boyle in which he referred to "nitrous or salino-sulphureous spirits" in air in his 1692 book A General History of the Air. The Scottish chemist Robert Angus Smith began to study acid rain in Manchester, England, in 1852 and extended the work in England, Scotland, and Germany for 20 years. His 1872 book, Air and Rain: The Beginnings of a Chemical Climatology, pointed out the link between sulfur pollution and "acid rain." He warned that acid rain was damaging plants and materials downwind of industrial regions, but his warning went largely unheeded.

While some research was conducted on acid deposition in the ensuing years, it was not until the 1950s and 1960s that E. Gorham, conducting research in England and Canada, built the major foundations for our present understanding of the causes of acid precipitation and its impact on aquatic ecosystems. However, it took the work of a Swedish scientist, S. Oden, in the 1960s, to arouse the scientific community and general public to engage in the debate about acid deposition. One newspaper account described his ideas about an insidious "chemical war" among the nations of Europe. Thus, by the 1970s, it was finally realized that Eastern Europe, Germany, Scandinavia, Canada, and the United States were experiencing widespread damage to forests and lakes as well as damage to stone and metal buildings and other structures from acid rain. In Germany, the term Waldsterben (forest death) was coined. Forests in parts of the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Russia were practically devastated due to acid rain and heavy-metal ion deposition from uncontrolled industrial and power plant emissions. China and India are also experiencing significant effects of acid

Handbook of Weather, Climate, and Water: Atmospheric Chemistry, Hydrology, and Societal Impacts, Edited by Thomas D. Potter and Bradley R. Colman. ISBN 0-471-21489-2 © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

rain, with the Taj Mahal losing much of its stonework surface material to acid deposition.

Acid Rain Chemistry

Acid rain is actually precipitation of various ions, both anions and cations, through precipitation, such as rain, snow, fog, as well as dry particles or aerosols. A typical ion balance is

[H+] + [Na+] + [Na4+] + 2[Ca2+]

= 2[S042-] + 2[S032 ] + [NO J] + [CP] + [OH"] + [HC03"] + 2[C032-] (1)

The primary naturally occurring trace gas that affects the pH of precipitation is carbon dioxide (C02), which forms carboxylic acid in water. The aqueous reactions of carbon dioxide are as follows:

C02 gas + H20 H2C03

H2C03 HC03 +H+

Since pKa of (4) is as high as 10.3, reaction (2) has the greatest influence on the acidity of natural atmospheric systems. For a partial pressure of C02 of 350 ppmv, Henry's law constant (KH) is as follows:

Kh = [H2C03]/[C02 gas] = 3.97 x 10~2 mol/L atm and the equilibrium constant (K3) of reaction (3) is given by:

K3 = [H+][HC03"]/[H2C03] = 4.5 x 10"7 mol/L

By combining and rearranging these two expressions, one arrives at the following equation:

[HC03-] = ([C02 gas] x K„ x AT3)/[H+]

If the concentration of bicarbonate in water is equal to the hydrogen ion concentration, then by substitution, one arrives at the following:

([C02 gas] x Kh x k3)/[h4 = 5.97 x 10"12 mol2/L~2

Therefore,

The bracketed quantities denote molar concentrations, with the cations on the left, the anions on the right.

Note that Henry's law can be expressed in terms of a pseudo-Henry's law constant to account for the increased uptake of gas in the liquid due to reactions in the liquid. For example,

However, 5.6 is not necessarily the natural pH of rain since other naturally occurring species also play a role. Nitrogen oxides are formed naturally during lightning discharges, and sulfur species are released into the atmosphere over the oceans from biological activity as dimethyl sulfide (DMS). Hydrocarbon acids such as carboxylic acids, HCOO„ and methylcarboxylic acids, CH3COO„ also contribute to the acidity, especially in remote, forested regions. On the other hand, base cations from soil dust, such as Ca, Mg, K, and P, etc., are alkaline and increase the pH. Thus, the natural acidity of precipitation can vary considerably depending on the upwind sources and, as will be discussed, meteorological conditions.

In addition, pollutants such as the nitrogen and sulfur oxides also contribute to acidity and are the focus of most of the concern regarding acid deposition. However, ammonia, often associated with agricultural operations, is alkaline. This chapter will examine the sources, the chemical transformations involved in the production of acid deposition, transport, deposition amounts and trends, and the effects on soils, plants, animals, and materials.

2 SOURCES Natural

To put pollution contributions into perspective, it is worthwhile first to understand the role that naturally occurring materials play in acid deposition. Natural sources of sulfur account for 25 to 30% of the total, unless there are large volcanic eruptions, such as El Chichon in 1982 or Mount Pinatubo in 1991. Mount Pinatubo was estimated to emit 9Tg of S into the stratosphere (total sources are 94 to 123TgS/yr), where the e_1 residence time for sulfuric acid aerosols is approximately one year.

Kco* = [C02 x H20 + HC03 C032-]/PCOj

Oxides of nitrogen (NOt = NO + N02) are also produced naturally. As discussed in Chapter 4, natural sources such as soil emissions, lightning, stratospheric-tropo-spheric exchange, and a portion of biomass burning account for approximately one third of total NOv.

Hydrocarbons are also involved in acid deposition. Carboxylic acids, HCOO„ and methylcarboxylic acids, CH3COO„ are important hydrocarbon acids derived from direct terrestrial emissions as well as oxidation of emissions by marine or terrestrial biota.

Base cations are generally derived from soils through lofting of aeolian dust by wind. Deserts, such as the Sahara Desert in Africa and the Gobi Desert in China, generate large dust clouds each year that are transported thousands of kilometers. The dust from the Sahara Desert often reaches both North and South America and may provide significant base cations for vegetation in the rain forests. The dust from the Gobi Desert is often seen over Japan and the Korean Peninsula. The base cation deposition in Europe was studied for 1989. Using a 10 x 20 km2 grid, maps were produced showing that base cations neutralize S042- +N03~ by much more in southern regions than in northern regions. South of 45° to 50°N, more than 50% was neutralized, with more than 75% in some locations; in Norway and Sweden, the amount neutralized generally fell to less than 10%. The variations can be explained in terms of the amounts of acid ions and base cations in the air. Soil-derived dust in the United States used to provide the base cations to help neutralize the effects of sulfur and nitrogen. However, the amount of base cations in precipitation has been declining in the past 2 to 3 decades in the United States probably because of changes in farming and construction practices that leave fewer disturbed regions from which wind can raise dust.

Anthropogenic

Anthropogenic sources of sulfur accounted for 77% of global sulfur emissions in 1980. Combustion of fossil fuel for electric power production is responsible for most of the anthropogenic contributions to acid deposition, accounting for 67% of the anthropogenic S02 emissions in the United States in 1996. Industrial fuel combustion accounts for 17% of the U.S. S02 emissions, with various other sources accounting for the rest. Fuel used for transportation generates 7% of the S02 emissions, which has been linked to regional haze patterns in such places as the Los Angeles Basin and portions of the eastern United States.

NO is a by-product of combustion of all hydrocarbon fuels, both fossil fuel and fresh biomass, due to the high temperatures involved. In the United States in 1996, 30% of the NO emissions came from on-road vehicles, 28% from electric utilities, 19% from nonroad engines and vehicles, 13% from industrial fuel combustion, and 10% from other sources. On a global basis, anthropogenic NO emissions are highest where industry, fossil fuel power plants, and surface transportation are most densely sited, i.e., the northern midlatitudes.

Anthropogenic ammonia emissions are associated with fertilizers and livestock feedlots. Organic acids also contribute to the anthropogenic burden of acid deposi tion. The major organic acids found in the gas phase are formic acid (HCOOH) and acetic acid (CH3COOH), with other organic acids found in minor amounts. Sources include automobile exhaust, biomass burning, and some food processing plants.

The emitted S02, NO, and NH3 are transformed to aerosols and components of precipitation through both gas-phase and aqueous-phase chemical reactions. Sulfur dioxide is transformed in the gas phase primarily by:

Ozone can also lead to the oxidization of S02. Such reactions would be especially important at night when OH radical concentrations are very small due to the absence of solar radiation. One way this can happen is for ozone to react with an alkene, such as ethene or propene by adding to the carbon double bond, creating a primary ozonide. Since ozonides are not stable, this can rapidly split into what is called a Criegee intermediate, named after the German chemist who proposed the mechanism. A Criegee intermediate can react with S02 in a series of steps that also result in the oxidation of S02, which can also be oxidized directly by ozone, but the reaction rate is slow. Note that the rate of oxidation of S02 has a seasonal cycle in middle latitudes, being as much as an order of magnitude lower in winter than in summer.

In the aqueous phase, other reactions can occur. For example:

These reactions establish equilibria of the various sulfur species, with mole fractions dependent on the pH of the solution and both Henry's law constant [for (14)] and equilibrium constants [for (15) and (16)]. Dissolved S02 (13) is favored at pH below 2, the bisulfite ion (15) for 2 < pH < 7, and the sulfite ion (16) for pH > 7.

Aqueous-phase reactions with H202 in cloud, fog, and raindrops are considered to be the dominant mechanisms for the oxidation of S02 to H2S04. Thus, H202 could be rate limiting. Field and modeling studies show that to explain the seasonal concentrations of H202 (higher in summer than in winter) the initial rate of aqueous phase H202 photoformation has to be linearly dependent on solar actinic flux, i.e., radiation that induces photochemical reactions. Organic chromophores are suggested to be responsible for the H202 photoformation. One implication of this study is that the seasonal variability in the nonlinearity between S02 emissions and regional sulfate deposition may be largely explained. Other peroxides can also oxidize S02, but exist in lower concentrations than does H202.

3 TRANSFORMATION

S02 + H20 -» S02 x H2O S02 xH20-> HSO3-+H+ HS03~ -» S032- +H+

Other reactions leading to the oxidation of S(IV) include ozone, 02 catalyzed by transition metal ions such as Fe3+ and Mn2+, and carbonaceous particles. While the reactions with H202 are generally most important (2 to 20% per hour, independent of pH), the others are much weaker in general and have very strong pH dependences. Above a pH of 5, the reaction with ozone is comparable to that for H202, with the other reactions somewhat weaker.

Note that other sulfur species, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and carbonyl sulfide (OCS), emitted by biological sources, can also be oxidized, as well as dimethyl sulfide (DMS), emitted from marine sources. While OH is the primary source of DMS oxidation, N03 also reacts rapidly with DMS, and halogens, such as bromine, chlorine, and iodine are also potential reactants with DMS in the marine boundary layer.

Nitric oxide (NO) is rapidly oxidized to N02, especially by reacting with ozone: NO + 03 N02 + 02 (17)

From there, it is transformed to nitric acid by interaction with the hydroxyl radical:

This reaction is about 10 times more rapid than that of (13).

Nitric acid can also be formed by the reaction with various organics, such as the alkanes and aldehydes. In this case, hydrogen is abstracted from the organic molecule. This reaction may account for 15% of the nitric acid formation, occurring primarily at night.

Both sulfate and nitrate aerosols are very hygroscopic and increase in diameter rapidly with increases in relative humidity above 50% to 70%. In the absence of cloud formation, they form the bulk of regional aerosols downwind of heavily industrialized/urbanized regions, such as the eastern United States. As acid haze becomes thicker and stays near the surface, it can become acid fog, such as has been observed in California and in eastern U.S. mountains. An aerosol/fog cycle can be set up in which aerosol particles grow by water condensation on existing nuclei, dilute and dissolve in fog droplets, where they undergo chemical conversions. The process can go the other way as solute concentrations increase due to evaporation of the water, leading back to aerosols. Thus, as the temperature cycles during the day, the fog-aerosol-fog cycle can be made.

An excellent overview of the chemistry of acid precipitation can be found in Finlayson-Pitts and Pitts (2000).

4 TRANSPORT

In addition to source regions and transformation mechanisms and rates, winds and other meteorological conditions also play important roles in determining where acid precipitation will occur. The pollution plumes will be transported at the rate of the

5 DEPOSITION 275

prevailing winds. The source gases will be transformed at various rates depending on such factors as amount of solar radiation, concentrations of OH and water vapor, temperature, and the extent of clouds.

Sulfate can be transported up to 1100 km in normal downwind directions and up to 400 km in the normal upwind directions {i.e., during the reduced opportunities for transport in that direction), while nitrogen oxides are transported as nitrates as far as 200 to 800 km. It is found that turnover times for anthropogenic sulfate are 4.7± 1.1 days in the eastern United States.

The transport of ammonia and ammonium depends on the emissions of S02 and NOv along the trajectory of the air mass containing them. The transport distance for ammonia and ammonium in northern Europe depends on the amount of S02 and NOr present. When they are present, transport is reduced significantly because ammonium aerosols are formed rapidly. NHr is most likely to be deposited in the country of origin in Europe, given the sizes of the countries, while for SOv only 25 to 30% would be deposited and for NO,, only 10%.

Figure I Annual pH of rain for the United States in 1990. The black lines indicate contours of equal pH. See ftp site for color image.

5 DEPOSITION

Acid deposition occurs in two primary forms—wet and dry. Wet deposition comprises rain, snow, and fog. Dry deposition involves turbulent transport of aerosol and gases to the surface layer. The relative amounts of wet and dry deposition depend on a number of factors, such as the amount of precipitation, whether the

Figure I Annual pH of rain for the United States in 1990. The black lines indicate contours of equal pH. See ftp site for color image.

elevation is above the cloud line, how far the site is from the primary sources of the acid ions, etc. At U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) National Dry Deposition Network stations in the eastern United States in 1991, dry sulfate deposition accounted for approximately 10 to 60% (mean approximately 40%) of total sulfate deposition, with wet deposition accounting for the rest. For nitrates, the dry deposition fraction varied from 20 to 65% (mean approximately 45%). Due to the seasonal cycle in the rate of oxidation of S02, deposition rates for S02 tend to be higher than for S04 in winter, with the reverse occurring in summer.

The acidity of deposition depends on the difference between anions and cations in the precipitate. Thus, the nitrate and sulfate ions reduce the pH, while ammonium and soil-derived dust increase the pH. Figure 1 shows a map of the pH of rain for the United States in 1990, indicating that the pH is lowest just southeast of the Great Lakes, a consequence of the high amount of fossil fuel combustion in and to the west of the region.

6 MEASUREMENT Instruments

Various instruments are used in the study of acid deposition. Since emission rates are generally estimated based on factors associated with fuel consumption, not many measurements are made at the source regions. Standard meteorological instruments and networks are used for the meteorological data input. The collectors generally use polypropylene funnels and bottles. The bottles may be refrigerated to 4°C to reduce evaporation and/or heated to melt snow. When wet and dry deposition collectors are used together, a lid is placed over the dry deposition bucket at the onset of precipitation, then back over the wet deposition bucket at the end of precipitation. However, it should be noted that measurement of dry deposition is notoriously difficult, and that buckets do not adequately represent the manner in which the local surfaces collect dry deposition. The three conceptual ways in which dry deposition is measured are: (1) direct collection on surrogate or natural surfaces, (2) flux measurements by eddy correlation or profile techniques, and (3) indirect estimation using atmospheric concentration monitoring and estimated deposition velocities. Which approach is used varies depending on the funds available and the accuracy to which the information is desired.

Once the samples are collected, they are taken to a laboratory for analysis. The analytical methods used by the National Acid Deposition Program/National Trends Network (NADP/NTN) in the United States are likely typical of such programs. A glass electrode is used to measure pH; conductivity is measured using a platinum electrode; chloride, nitrate, orthophosphate and sulfate are measured with ion chro-matrography with a detection limit of 0.03 mg/L for all but orthophosphate, which is measured with a detection limit of 0.02 mg/L; ammonium is measured using automated phenate colorimetry with a detection limit of 0.02 mg/L; calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium are measured with flame atomic absorption spectro-

7 INTENSIVE STUDY PROGRAMS 277

photometer with a detection limit of 0.003 except for calcium, for which the detection limit is 0.09 mg/L. Sodium and/or magnesium can be used to estimate the fraction of material derived from sea salt. This is useful in determining how to apportion the sulfate values between terrestrial and oceanic sources.

The Acid Precipitation in Ontario Study (APIOS) deposition monitoring program has similar instrumentation with slightly different detection limits. The NADP/NTN detection limits were improved by instrument changes in 1985, while the APIOS instrumentation was established in 1980 and not updated as of 1990.

Surface networks

Collection instruments are often set out in networks. The NADP/NTN is an example of such a network. It is part of a cooperative program that includes federal, state, and private research organizations. The objectives of the program are:

1. To measure and characterize the supply of beneficial and injurious chemical substances in atmospheric deposition on a broad regional scale

2. To determine the spatial patterns and temporal trends in the distribution of chemical elements deposited on natural and managed ecosystems

3. To provide information needed to gain a better understanding of the sources, transport, and transformation of materials contributing to or associated with acidic atmospheric deposition in the United States

The NADP/NTN was made operational in July 1978 and continues to the present time. The sites were selected to represent major physiographic, agricultural, aquatic, and forested areas throughout the United States. In general, sites are located in rural areas away from sources that could affect the measurements. The program grew from 22 sites in late 1978 to about 200 sites in 1985, which were still in operation in 1990. The containers are heated to 4°C to melt snow but are not refrigerated. Samples are collected weekly and sent to the Central Analytical Laboratory in Champaign, Illinois.

7 INTENSIVE STUDY PROGRAMS

In the 1980s, a major study, the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP) was funded by Congress to investigate the situation in the United States. The total cost was $500 million. Areas of investigation included acid deposition and effects on aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Both nitrate and sulfate depositions were found to be highest in the northeast United States near the eastern Great Lakes, centered on eastern Michigan, western New York and Pennsylvania, and northern West Virginia, and extending into southern Ontario, albeit with somewhat different geographical distributions. Ammonium deposition peaked in Michigan and southern

Ontario. As a consequence, annual pH of rain is lowest in New York, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia as shown in Figure 1 for 1990.

Similar programs have been carried out in a number of European countries, especially in terms of acid rain effects on forests, with a number of them reported in the Springer Ecological Studies series.

8 GLOBAL TRENDS IN EMISSIONS AND DEPOSITION

With accelerating economic development in Southeast Asia, anthropogenic NOx emissions are expected to increase dramatically in the near future. It has been estimated that global NOx emissions will increase from an estimated 19Tg N02 in 1990 to 86 Tg N02 in 2020. The largest increases are expected in the power and transport sectors.

Trends of acid deposition should generally follow the regional trends for fossil fuel consumption, with coal and oil providing most of the sulfur, and all components contributing to the nitrogen oxides and organic acids. In the United States, wood was the primary source of fuel until 1880, being used to generate about 3 x 1015 Btu/yr at the peak in 1870. Coal started to be used in increasing amounts around 1850, rising to 15 x 1015 Btu/yr by 1916, staying in the range 10 to 17 x 1015 Btu/yr after that. Oil started to become an important fuel source after 1900, rising to 35 x 1015 Btu/yr by 1977 before leveling off. Natural gas also became important after 1900, rising to 24 x 1015 Btu/yr by 1970 before dropping slightly. Thus, in the United States, acid deposition should have risen steadily from 1900 to at least the 1980s. In the eastern and midwestern United States there has been an estimated 19% decrease in S02 emissions and a 16% decrease in NOv emissions between 1975 and 1987. Since the U.S. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 mandated further decreases in sulfur emissions, they have continued to decrease. Between 1989 and 1995, sulfur dioxide decreased 35% and sulfate 26% in rural eastern United States. Nitrogen emissions have not been recognized as being very important until recently for a variety of scientific and political reasons, and it is more difficult to remove NOx than S02 from the flue gases, so the regulations on nitrogen emissions are not as strong as for sulfur. Between 1989 and 1995 nitrogen concentrations in rural eastern United States had fallen only 8%.

Data for historical anthropogenic emissions of S02 are also available for Europe. A gradual increase is seen from 1880 (0.45Tg/yr) to 1940 (1.4Tg/yr), a dip in 1945, then a rapid increase to >36Tg/yr in 1980, followed by a gradual decline thereafter. Ammonia emissions peaked in the mid-1980s.

Continued population growth and development are expected to lead to an increase of 25% in the deposition of nitrogen in the more-developed-country regions by the year 2020. Earth's population is projected to increase from 6 billion in 1999 to 8.5 billion in 2020, and per-capita energy consumption is expected to double compared to 1980. Much of the increase will be felt in Asia. The increases in nitrogen oxides may lead to larger ozone concentrations, thereby increasing the

10 EFFECTS ON FORESTS, AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS, AND MATERIALS 279

oxidizing capacity of the atmosphere and its ability to absorb thermal infrared radiation.

9 SOIL CHANGES

Bernhard Ulrich is credited with determining how acid deposition affects soil during the acidification process. His 1966 study set the stage for his later work. His review summarizes the effects of acid deposition on soil cation-anion budgets and lists a number of his key works. As soil acidity increases due to acid deposition (or plant biomass harvesting for that matter), the base cations (e.g., Ca, Mg, K, P) try to neutralize the acidity and are leached from the upper soil horizons in the process. As the process continues, the transition metal and aluminum oxides are dissolved, with these cations becoming more prevalent in the soil solution. Nitric acid is a stronger acid than sulfuric, so it has a greater ability to lower the soil pH. An interesting recent finding is that as the process continues, Al3+ seems to accelerate the base cation leaching process, making Al3+ more readily available. As acid deposition continues over a long period, the acid neutralizing capacity (ANC) or alkalinity decreases.

Additional influences on ANC arise from biogeochemical processes. Trees, for example, enhance the collection of dry deposition as well as remove base cations from the soil. Soil organic matter storage is followed by decay, which releases the trace minerals, nitrogen, and organic acids. In addition, forest defoliation by the gypsy moth has exacerbated the effects of acidic deposition. Changes in stream water composition following severe defoliation of forested mountain watersheds in western Virginia has included increased concentrations of nitrate and acidity, as well as accelerated export of base cations, and pH and ANC reached lower levels than previously observed, especially during storm flow conditions. To date, several years following the defoliation, stream water composition has not returned to pre-defoliation values.

Finally, there are interactions between the various processes. Changing acid-base status changes vegetation amounts and types. Reductions in vegetation cover can lead to reduction in enhanced collection of dry deposition as well as higher surface temperatures, thereby increasing microbial activities.

10 EFFECTS ON FORESTS, AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS, AND MATERIALS

Forests

Paradoxically, one of the first effects of acid deposition on trees and forests is that of stimulating growth, rather than hindering it. Nitrogen in both ammonium (NH4) and nitrate (N03) forms can be utilized by trees in building amino acids required for growth. Thus, nitrogen deposition first has the impact of fertilizing plants. This process eventually ceases in temperate ecosystems when the soil is nitrogen saturated. The impact of nitrogen deposition on carbon uptake by terrestrial ecosystems has been modeled using several different three-dimensional models. Both NOv and NHX deposition were considered. The bulk of the NOv, deposition was found to be in the eastern United States, Europe, and, to a lesser extent, in eastern Asia and Japan. All five models predict that most of the carbon will be sequestered in the forests of eastern United States and Europe. Without N saturation, C sequesterization was found to range from 6 to 13 x 1015 g C/yr, while with N saturation, the range was 5 to 10 x 1015 g C/yr. This implies that N saturation reduces the growth rate of forests, in line with what has been observed in forests in the northeastern United States.

Acid deposition also causes the soil solution pH to be lowered, in part through the increased biomass growth rate, since the tree has to give up hydronium ions in exchange for base cations. It should be noted that the impact of acid deposition on forests is mediated through the soils, with some better able to buffer the acid than others. Calcium carbonate or limestone, for example, has a high buffering capacity, and would take a long time to show serious effects from acid deposition. One response of trees is for the tree roots to try to grow away from the acid soil, which may take the form of growing more in the upper organic layer, rather than in the lower mineral horizons. This makes trees susceptible to other stresses, such as winds and drought. Another effect is that since trees obtain less calcium after long-term acid deposition, the strength of the boles (trunks) and branches is reduced, since plants rely upon calcium for cell wall structure, they are much more susceptible to falling during ice, snow, and wind storms, as was the case in the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada in early 1998.

Starting around the 1970s, researchers in the United States and Europe began to notice that trees were beginning to show evidence of decline for nonhistorical reasons. Acid deposition was identified as a likely suspect in the early 1970s, although the effects of acid deposition had been observed in the sixteenth century in Europe and discussed again in the midnineteenth century.

The effects of acid precipitation on European forests in the 1980s have been well documented, especially to the Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst]. A study investigating the spruce decline determined that a long history of acid deposition, mostly sulfate prior to the early part of the century, with nitrate added around 1915, led to the observed effects. The soils were somewhat deficient in calcium and magnesium, and by about 1980, there was a strong nutritional imbalance due to years of ammonium nitrate depositions, nitrate leaching from the soils, and soil acidification. The yellowing of the leaves was attributed to deficiencies in magnesium. While Waldsterben in Europe was less pronounced in the early-to-mid-1990s than in the mid-1980s, probably due to reductions in sulfur emissions, declines in forest health are still quite prevalent, especially in central Europe. Annual forest condition surveys in conjunction with the modeling studies of nitrogen deposition show increased soil acidity in the regions with highest forest decline symptoms. There, the mean plot defoliation was in the range of 20 to 40% in 1997, with evergreens affected more than deciduous trees.

10 EFFECTS ON FORESTS, AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS, AND MATERIALS 281

Acid deposition has had an adverse impact on forests in the eastern United States. The decline of the red spruce forests in the northeastern United States has been attributed to acid deposition, as has the decline of red spruce forests in North Carolina. Acid deposition has also adversely affected the sugar maples {Acer saccharum Marsh.) in Pennsylvania and Quebec as well as red oaks {Quercus rubra) and white oaks {Quercus alba) in the eastern United States. Evidence linking acid deposition to U.S. forest condition is found using the U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service Forest Inventory and Analysis data in conjunction with acid ion deposition doses using the acid deposition data from NAPAP. Increased mortality rates for white oaks {Quercus alba) in the northeastern United States can be related statistically to increased acid ion doses.

Further evidence for the role of acid deposition affecting oaks is found in oak tree ring studies in North Carolina and Missouri in the United States. The growth spurts in the 1950s for oaks in decline compared with lower growth rates of healthier nearby oaks are consistent with the N fertilization effect; the gradual growth decline subsequently is consistent with impaired tree vitality due to both acid deposition and ozone exposure; and the rapid decline after major droughts in the 1980s is consistent with shallower root depth, leading to greater water stress in drought periods.

Aquatic Ecosystems

Aquatic ecosystems have borne much of the brunt of acid deposition, resulting in significant loss of invertebrate populations and fish production among other things.

There are several processes influencing acid-base chemistry of surface waters. Wet and dry deposition is one. The other important factor is the ANC (alkalinity) of the water body. In turn, the ANC is strongly affected by the soils and bedrock under and near the body. The difference between the sums of base cations and acid anions derived from the soils and bedrock is equal to the ANC. Location of a body of water in a region where the soils and rocks are more likely to contribute base cations than acid anions to the water are less likely to be acidified by acid deposition. The base cations involved at the higher ANC levels are generally, in approximate order of importance, calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium. The acid anions are, likewise, carbonate, organic acids, sulfate, chloride, and nitrate. Of course, local conditions affect the amounts and relative orders.

Both aquatic animals and plants are adversely affected by acidification. The processes affected by acidification include change rates and amounts of primary production, nutrient cycling, and decomposition. Aluminum plays an important role in acidified systems since it is detrimental or toxic to both animal and plant life. Normally, aluminum is tightly bound to oxygen or the hydroxyl radical, OH. As the pH is lowered below 6, the concentration of monomelic aluminum rises rapidly. Aluminum in acidified streams has been found to coat the gills of fish, leading to premature mortality.

It has recently been recognized that atmospheric deposition of nitrogen is playing a significant role in the eutrophication in estuaries and coastal waters, such as the Chesapeake Bay in the mid-Atlantic eastern United States. Until a landmark study was published in 1991, it was thought that most of the nitrogen reaching such bodies of water came from agricultural operations. More recent work has determined that approximately 20% of the nitrogen reaching the Chesapeake Bay as wet precipitation is in the form of dissolved organic nitrogen. In addition, a significant fraction comes from ammonium.

Another consequence of lake acidification is increased transparency. Most likely this is due to reduction in dissolved organic carbon or from a change in the chemical nature and light absorption capacity of dissolved organics in the water. This can lead to changes in primary productivity and thermal structure at lower depths. An additional consequence of increased transparency is increased transmission of ultraviolet B (UV-B) (280 to 320 nm) radiation. This leads to reductions in abundances of phytoplankton and zooplankton sensitive to UV-B.

The geographic overview of the regional case study areas is instructive. The key factors distinguishing among the regions are geology, soils, climate, hydrology, deposition chemistry, land use, vegetation, and landforms. All play important roles in determining the degree of acidification of aquatic ecosystems. Regions with bedrock highly resistant to chemical weathering are more likely to have low ANC lakes. Calcareous bedrock leads to high ANC waters. However, if the overlying till has different properties, it can counter the influences of the bedrock. In the northeast United States, glaciers brought in till from the calcareous Canadian Shield, leading to high ANC lakes. Among soils, the younger soils, more often found in the northern United States, lead to lower ANC water bodies, while the older soils, more often found in the southeastern United States, lead to higher ANC water bodies due to the accumulated organic matter that can lead to organic acidity.

Materials

Acid deposition also affects materials such as rocks and metals used in monuments and building construction through corrosion. Calcareous rock materials such as marble and sandstone are particularly vulnerable since the base cations are leached by the acids just as in soils. Mortar from limestone is also very susceptible to damage, but bricks are largely immune to the effects. Even ancient monuments are affected in a variety of ways including removal of material; development of rusty yellow patinas rich in Fe and Cu; firmly attached black crusts in contact with percolating water, where recrystallized calcite shields amorphous deposits rich in S, Si, Fe, and carbonaceous particles; and black loose deposits of gypsum and fly ash particles. Also, metals that react with hydrogen, nitrate, or sulfate, such as copper and iron, will be slowly eroded. Modern building practices have to consider effects of acid deposition and corrosion in the design phase.

11 POLICIES

Since acid rain has adverse impacts on animals, plants, and structures, there is concern that levels be reduced from current levels in many places and not increase rapidly in developing regions where fossil fuel combustion is increasing.

11 POLICIES 283

After completion of the NAPAP study, but not because of it, the 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act mandated reductions in sulfur dioxide emissions from power plants in an effort to reduce the impacts of acid deposition on the environment. The key study in this regard was one published in Science showing essentially that what goes up must come down, i.e., that regions within a few hundred miles downwind of S02 (and NOx) emission sources would be impacted by the emissions.

Given the fact that anthropogenic emissions of acid precursors are expected to rise, and that acid deposition has major adverse impacts on both aquatic and land ecosystems, it seems to be worthwhile to set local, national, and international policies that would tend to reduce the projected increases in emissions. The four main routes to cutting pollution emissions are: (1) using low-pollutant fuels, (2) preventing the formation of pollutants such as NO during combustion, (3) screening pollutants from exhaust and flue gases, and (4) energy conservation. Some of these routes would also help reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases. Choosing between these routes or some combination thereof involves consideration of the trade-offs including economic and political issues, e.g., the sources of the various fuels and whether the costs of emissions reductions outweigh the benefits, with the added complication that the groups incurring the costs are not necessarily the ones reaping the benefits.

A variety of policies has been identified that could be adopted to reduce the contribution of transport sector NOx emissions at the local level in the Netherlands. The most important national policies identified relate to vehicles and fuels, pricing policy, public transport policies, and national guidelines for policies on parking and land use, while the most important local policies identified are those for parking, land use, cycling, and restrictions for motorized vehicles.

Regulations that would lead to further reductions in nitric oxide and sulfur emissions were proposed in the United States in late 1999. Oil refiners are being asked to remove 90% of the sulfur from gasoline. The manufacturers of sport utility vehicles (SUVs) and light-duty trucks are being asked to comply with the emission standards for passenger vehicles. Older electric power generating plants, which tried to escape emissions controls under the "grandfather" clause, are being asked to cut their nitrogen emissions. The proposed action affects 392 generating units at both electric generating (EGU) and non-electric-generating (non-EGU) facilities in 12 states. Affected EGUs will be required to reduce NOx emissions to 0.15 lb(mmBtu)-1, while large non-EGUs will be required to reduce NOx emissions by approximately 60% from baseline levels.

If changed regulations are not sufficient, Congress may consider additional legislation to reduce emissions. Of course, there would be a phase-in period, so it might take a decade or two for the changes to have an impact on the environment.

REFERENCES

Adriano, D. C., and A. H. Johnson (Eds.), Acidic Precipitation, Vol. 2: Biological and

Ecological Effects, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1989. Boyle, Robert, The General History of the Air, Awnsham and John Churchill, London, 1692.

Charles, D. F., and S. Christie (Eds.), Acidic Deposition and Aquatic Ecosystems, SpringerVerlag, Berlin, 1991.

Cowling, E. B., Acid precipitation in historical perspective, Environ. Sei. Technol., 16, 11 OA 123A, 1982.

Erisman, J. W., and G. P. J. Draaijers, Atmospheric Deposition in Relation to Acidification and Eutrophication, Elsevier, New York, 1995.

Finlayson-Pitts, B. J., and J. N. Pitts, Jr., Acid deposition: formation and fates of inorganic and organic acids in the troposphere, Ch. 8 in Chemistry of the Upper and Lower Atmosphere: Theory, Experiments and Applications. Academic, New York, 2000, pp. 294-348.

Fisher, D. C., and M. Oppenheimer, Atmospheric nitrogen deposition to the Chesapeake Bay Estuary, Ambio, 23, 102-108, 1991.

Graedel, T. E., and R. McGill, Degradation of materials in the atmosphere, Environ. Sei. Technol., 20, 1093-1100, 1986.

Hedin, L. O., and G. E. Likens, Atmospheric dust and acid rain, Sei. Am., 275(6), 88-92,1996.

Johnson, D. W., and S. E. Lindberg (Eds.), Atmospheric Deposition and Forest Nutrient Cycling, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1992.

Likens, G. E., and F. H. Bormann, Acid rain: A serious regional environmental problem, Science, 184, 1176-1179, 1974.

Lindberg, S. E., A. L. Page, and S. A. Norton (Eds.), Acidic Precipitation, Vol. 3: Sources, Deposition and Canopy Interactions, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1990.

Radojevic, M., and R. M. Harrison (Eds.), Atmospheric Acidity, Sources, Consequences and Abatement, Elsevier Applied Science, New York, 1992.

Schulze, E.-D., O. L. Lange, and R. Oren (Eds.), Forest Decline and Air Pollution, Ecological Studies 77, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1989.

Schiitt, P., and E. B. Cowling, Waldsterben, a general decline of forests in Central Europe: Symptoms, development, and possible causes, Plant Disease, 69, 548-558, 1985.

Schwartz, S. E., Acid deposition: Unraveling a regional phenomenon, Science, 243, 753-763, 1989.

Sisterson, D. L., V. C. Bowersox, T. P. Meyers, A. R. Olsen, and R. J. Vong, Deposition Monitoring: Methods and Results, NAPAP Report 6, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, III, 1990.

Smith, Robert A., Air and rain [microform]: The Beginning of a Chemical Climatology, Longmans, London, 1872.

Sverdrup, H., and P. Warfvinge, Past and future changes in soil acidity and implications for forest growth under deposition scenarios, Ecol. Bull., 44, 335-351, 1995.

Ulrich, B., Nutrient and acid-base budget of Central European forest ecosystems, in Effects of Acid Rain on Forest Processes, Wiley-Liss, New York, 1994, pp. 1-50.

Ulrich, B. 1983(a). A concept of forest ecosystem stability and of acid deposition as a driving force for destabilization. In: Ulrich, B. and Pankrath, J (Eds), Effectsm of Accumulation of Air Polutants in Forest Ecosystems. D Reidel Publishing Company, 1-29.

Ulrich, B. 1983(b). Soil acidity and its relations to acid deposition. In: Ulrich, B and Pankrath, J (Eds), Effects of Accumulation of Air Pollutants in Forest Ecosystems. D Reidel Publishing Company, 127-146.

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Readers' Questions

  • frank frueh
    What type of rock might act as a buffer against acid rain?
    6 months ago
  • Limestone is a type of rock that can act as a buffer against acid rain. Limestone is primarily composed of calcium carbonate, which is alkaline in nature. When acid rain comes into contact with limestone, the calcium carbonate reacts with the acidic components of the rain, neutralizing them and reducing the harmful effects of acid rain.
    • prudenzio
      How does acid rain happen?
      6 months ago
    • Acid rain is caused by the emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere, such as sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). These pollutants are released mainly through human activities, including the burning of fossil fuels in power plants, factories, and vehicles. When sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released into the air, they combine with water vapor, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric acid and nitric acid. These acids can then mix with the rain, snow, fog, or other forms of precipitation. The acid rain can fall directly on the ground, bodies of water, and vegetation. It can also be carried by winds for long distances before being deposited. The impact of acid rain on the environment is significant. It can damage forests, including their leaves and bark, making them more vulnerable to diseases and insects. It can change the chemistry of soil, making it difficult for some plants to grow. Acid rain can also make water bodies more acidic, posing a threat to fish, amphibians, and other aquatic organisms. Efforts to reduce acid rain have been made by controlling and reducing the emissions of pollutants from various industries. This involves using cleaner technologies, implementing air pollution control measures, and promoting the use of renewable energy sources.
      • juliette macleod
        What is not a consequence of acid precipitation?
        7 months ago
      • One example of a consequence of acid precipitation is the acidification of lakes and streams, which can lead to the death of aquatic life and have cascading effects on the entire ecosystem. This is a consequence of acid precipitation. However, one example of something that is not a consequence of acid precipitation is increased crop yield. Acid rain can have detrimental effects on crops, such as leaching essential nutrients from the soil and damaging plant surfaces. Therefore, acid precipitation does not lead to increased crop yield.
        • Gormadoc
          Is acid rain a primary or secondary source?
          7 months ago
        • Acid rain is a secondary source. It is formed when primary air pollutants, such as sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals in the atmosphere to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3). These acids then fall to the earth as rain, snow, fog, or dry particles.
          • fatima
            What three methods are being used to solve the acid rain and pollution problems in the great lakes?
            8 months ago
          • There are several methods being used to address the acid rain and pollution problems in the Great Lakes. Below are three key approaches:
            1. Regulatory Measures: Governments have implemented stringent regulations and policies to control and reduce the emission of pollutants that contribute to acid rain and pollution. For example, the United States and Canada jointly implemented the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement, aiming to limit the discharge of pollutants into the lakes and promote their restoration. Regulations include restrictions on industrial emissions, sewage treatment, and agricultural runoff to minimize pollution.
            2. Pollution Control Technologies: Various technologies have been developed and implemented to control and reduce pollutants released into the Great Lakes. For instance, industrial facilities have adopted pollution control measures such as scrubbers, filters, and catalytic converters to reduce emissions of pollutants like sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter. Advanced wastewater treatment techniques are also employed to remove pollutants from industrial and municipal discharges before they reach the lakes.
            3. Environmental Conservation and Restoration: Efforts are directed towards conserving and restoring the ecosystems of the Great Lakes to combat pollution and mitigate the impacts of acid rain. This includes the restoration of wetlands, reforestation, removal of invasive species, and implementing sustainable agricultural practices. By improving the overall health of the lakes and their surrounding habitats, the ecosystems become more resilient to pollution and better capable of filtering and purifying water.
            4. It is important to note that these methods are not exhaustive, and ongoing research, education, and public awareness campaigns also play crucial roles in combating acid rain and pollution in the Great Lakes.
            • claudia
              Which effect of acid deposition most affects human health?
              8 months ago
            • The effect of acid deposition that most affects human health is the release of toxic substances such as heavy metals and aluminum into the environment. When acid rain falls on soil and water, it can leach out these toxic substances from rocks and other sources. These toxic substances can then enter the food chain and accumulate in plants and animals, including fish and seafood that humans consume. Consumption of these contaminated plants and animals can lead to various health problems, including kidney and liver damage, developmental issues in children, and increased risk of certain types of cancer.
              • Kinfe Selassie
                Does acid rain burn skin?
                8 months ago
              • Yes, acid rain can cause burns on the skin. Acid rain is defined as rain with a pH lower than 5.6, making it more acidic than normal rainwater. When acid rain comes into contact with the skin, it can cause irritation, redness, and even chemical burns in severe cases.
                • BOBBY
                  What color is acid rain?
                  9 months ago
                • Acid rain is not a specific color. It refers to rain or any other form of precipitation that has an unusually high level of acid in it, usually due to the presence of pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere. The color of acid rain is generally the same as regular rain, which is usually transparent or slightly cloudy.
                  • roisin duncan
                    What might happen if acidic chemicals were emitted into the air by factories?
                    9 months ago
                  • If acidic chemicals are emitted into the air by factories, several potential consequences may occur:
                    1. Air pollution: The acidic chemicals may contribute to air pollution, leading to poor air quality. This can be harmful to both human health and the environment. Breathing in polluted air can cause respiratory problems, aggravate existing conditions, and lead to long-term health issues.
                    2. Acid rain: Acidic chemicals can react with water vapor in the atmosphere to form acid rain. Acid rain is precipitation that has a lower pH than normal rainwater. When acid rain falls on soil, lakes, rivers, and forests, it can have damaging effects. It can make water bodies more acidic, harm aquatic life, damage vegetation, degrade soil quality, and erode building materials.
                    3. Contamination of water sources: If the acidic chemicals are not filtered or treated properly, they can contaminate water sources. When it rains, these chemicals can wash into rivers, lakes, and groundwater. This contamination can harm aquatic ecosystems, affect drinking water quality, and damage water-dependent industries like agriculture and fisheries.
                    4. Corrosion of buildings and infrastructure: Acidic chemicals in the air can corrode buildings, bridges, and other infrastructure over time. The acid can react with metals, deteriorating the structures and increasing maintenance and repair costs.
                    5. Harm to plant and animal life: Acidity in the air can damage plant life, leading to decreased crop yields and forest decline. Acidic chemicals in the environment may also harm animals, either directly or indirectly by causing damage to their habitats and food sources.
                    6. Damage to cultural heritage: Acidic chemicals can deteriorate historical buildings, monuments, and artifacts, damaging cultural heritage. This can result in irreversible loss and the need for expensive restoration efforts.
                    7. To mitigate these potential consequences, factories are encouraged to implement proper pollution control mechanisms, such as installing air filtration systems or utilizing cleaner production processes to minimize emissions. Additionally, governments enforce regulations and set emission standards to limit the amount of harmful chemicals released into the air.
                    • aamos kiiskinen
                      Where are problems with acid deposition found?
                      9 months ago
                    • Problems with acid deposition, also known as acid rain or acid precipitation, can be found in various locations around the world. Acid deposition occurs when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) are released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels, particularly from industrial activities and power plants. These pollutants can then combine with water vapor in the air and form sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3), which fall back to the Earth's surface as acid rain or other forms of acid precipitation. Historically, acid deposition was most severe in areas close to industrial regions and power plants, where emissions of these pollutants were high. In the past, heavily affected regions included areas of North America and Europe, particularly the northeastern United States, Canada, and Scandinavia. However, with increased regulations and efforts to reduce emissions, the problem of acid deposition has somewhat improved in these regions. Nowadays, the most severe problems with acid deposition are often found in developing countries where industrialization and the use of coal for energy have accelerated without adequate pollution control measures. Regions in Asia, such as China and India, are currently experiencing significant issues with acid deposition due to their rapid industrialization and reliance on fossil fuels. Aside from industrial regions, certain geographical features can also contribute to the problems with acid deposition. For example, areas downwind of volcanoes emitting large amounts of sulfur dioxide can experience acid deposition. Similarly, acid deposition can be more severe in mountainous areas due to the accumulation of pollutants in higher elevations. Overall, problems with acid deposition can be found in various regions of the world, with the severity depending on factors such as industrial activities, energy sources, pollution control measures, and geographic features.
                      • Elizabeth Frank
                        Is acid rain a primary pollutant?
                        9 months ago
                      • No, acid rain is not a primary pollutant. It is a secondary pollutant, meaning it is formed when primary pollutants, such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, react with the atmosphere and fall back to the Earth as rain or other forms of precipitation.
                        • spartaco
                          How does the burning of coal contribute to acid deposition?
                          9 months ago
                        • The burning of coal releases sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere. These gases can react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals in the air to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3), respectively. These acids then combine with rainwater, snow, or fog and fall back to the Earth's surface as acid deposition. When coal is burned, sulfur dioxide is released. It can undergo chemical reactions in the atmosphere to form sulfuric acid. The sulfuric acid then reacts with rainwater, forming a solution commonly referred to as acid rain. Acid rain can lower the pH of surface water bodies like lakes, rivers, and streams, making them more acidic. This increased acidity can harm aquatic organisms like fish, insects, and amphibians, as well as the plants and animals that rely on these organisms for food. In addition, the nitrogen oxides released during coal combustion can oxidize and form nitric acid, which also contributes to acid deposition. Nitric acid can have similar detrimental effects on the environment as sulfuric acid. Acid deposition not only affects water bodies but also has deleterious effects on the soil and vegetation. It can leach nutrients from the soil, making it less fertile and affecting the growth and health of plants. Acidic deposition can also damage forests and crops, leading to decreased productivity and economic losses. Overall, the burning of coal and the subsequent release of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides contribute significantly to acid deposition, causing widespread environmental damage and affecting both ecosystems and human activities.
                          • Arthur
                            What molecule reacts with water in the atmosphere that changes the ph of unpolluted rain?
                            9 months ago
                          • The molecule that reacts with water in the atmosphere, leading to the change in pH of unpolluted rain, is carbon dioxide (CO2). When CO2 dissolves in rainwater, it forms carbonic acid (H2CO3), thereby reducing the pH of the rainwater and making it slightly acidic. This natural acidity of rain, caused by the presence of carbonic acid, is known as "acid rain."
                            • jay
                              Which of the following are primary pollutants that are precursors to acid deposition?
                              9 months ago
                            • The primary pollutants that are precursors to acid deposition are:
                              1. Sulfur dioxide (SO2): It is released mainly from burning fossil fuels that contain sulfur, such as coal and oil.
                              2. Nitrogen oxides (NOx): These are emitted from various sources, including automobiles, power plants, and industrial processes.
                              3. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): These are released from the evaporation of fuels, solvents, and chemicals.
                              4. Ammonia (NH3): It is primarily emitted from agricultural activities, such as livestock waste and fertilizer application.
                              5. These pollutants can undergo chemical reactions in the atmosphere, leading to the formation of sulfuric acid (H2SO
                              6. 4) and nitric acid (HNO3). These acids can then be deposited on the Earth's surface through precipitation, causing acid rain or acid deposition.
                              • Kyllikki
                                What decline in human health is a consequence of acid rain?
                                9 months ago
                              • Acid rain can have several negative impacts on human health. Here are some of the declines in human health that can be linked to acid rain:
                                1. Respiratory Issues: Acid rain can lead to the release of pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the air. When these pollutants mix with the moisture in the atmosphere, they can form small acidic particles or droplets. Breathing in these particles can irritate the respiratory system, exacerbating conditions such as asthma, bronchitis, and other respiratory diseases.
                                2. Skin and Eye Problems: Acid rain can also cause skin and eye irritations. Direct contact with acid rain or even with surfaces, such as wet plants or objects soaked with acid rain, can cause rashes, redness, and even chemical burns on the skin. In some cases, it may also lead to eye inflammation and irritation.
                                3. Contaminated Drinking Water: Acid rain can cause the acidification of water bodies such as rivers, lakes, and streams. Acidic water can dissolve heavy metals like aluminum, lead, and mercury from the surrounding soils. When these metals contaminate drinking water sources, they can have detrimental effects on human health, including damage to the nervous system, kidney problems, developmental issues, and increased risk of certain cancers.
                                4. Reduced Nutrient Availability: Acid rain can leach essential nutrients from the soil, making it difficult for plants to grow and thrive. This reduction in nutrient availability can lead to lower crop yields and can indirectly affect human health through reduced food quality and nutrition.
                                5. Weakened Immune System: The pollutants present in acid rain, such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, can make individuals more susceptible to infections and diseases. Prolonged exposure to acid rain and its pollutants can weaken the immune system, making people more vulnerable to respiratory infections, allergies, and other illnesses.
                                6. It is essential to note that the consequences of acid rain on human health can vary depending on the intensity and duration of exposure, as well as individual susceptibility. Environmental regulations and measures to reduce emissions of pollutants can help mitigate the adverse health effects of acid rain.
                                • renzo
                                  What is/are the 2 main component(s) that make up acid rain derived from burning fossil fuels?
                                  9 months ago
                                • The two main components that make up acid rain derived from burning fossil fuels are sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx).
                                  • Tim
                                    What is the source of the nitrogen in the nox emitted from fossil fuel combustion?
                                    10 months ago
                                  • The source of nitrogen in NOx from fossil fuel combustion is atmospheric nitrogen (N2). It is present in the air and is mobilized when fuel is burned at high temperatures. Even though nitrogen is not part of the fossil fuel, it is present in the air, and when the fossil fuel is burned it combines with the oxygen in the air and forms nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). These two compounds make up the majority of the NOx released during combustion.
                                    • nicole nadel
                                      Which of the following states experiences the lowest levels of acid rain?
                                      10 months ago
                                    • The state with the lowest levels of acid rain is Hawaii.
                                      • sam
                                        What atmospheric component is responsible for the natural acidity of rain?
                                        10 months ago
                                      • ?" The atmospheric component responsible for the natural acidity of rain is dissolved carbon dioxide, which reacts with water to form carbonic acid.
                                        • adam
                                          Which of the following locations would most likely receive acid deposition?
                                          11 months ago
                                        • Acid deposition is most likely to occur in locations that experience high levels of air pollution, such as cities, industrial areas, and near coal-burning power plants.
                                          • Henry
                                            Is primarily responsible for acid rain in the northeast united states?
                                            11 months ago
                                          • The largest sources of air pollution leading to acid rain in the Northeast United States are power plants, transportation vehicles, and industrial facilities that burn fossil fuels, such as coal and oil. These facilities produce sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, which are the primary pollutants responsible for acid rain.
                                            • QUARTILLA
                                              Which of the following would be the most likely effect of acid deposition on a northern forest?
                                              11 months ago
                                            • The most likely effect of acid deposition on a northern forest would be reduced tree growth, dieback of trees, and increased rates of soil acidification. It can also cause increased leaching of essential plant nutrients, increased levels of heavy metals in the soil, and damage to leaf surfaces of trees.
                                              • cliff
                                                Which component is responsible for acid rain?
                                                11 months ago
                                              • The primary component responsible for acid rain is sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides released through the burning of fossil fuels.
                                                • bingo
                                                  What are the two reasons for acid rain?
                                                  11 months ago
                                                  1. Burning of fossil fuels - The combustion of fossil fuels and other industrial activities releases sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, which react with water and oxygen in the atmosphere to form acid rain.
                                                  2. Volcanic activity - Volcanic eruptions produce sulfur dioxide gas, which react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals in the atmosphere to form acid rain.
                                                  • ted burrowes
                                                    How can acid rain be avoided?
                                                    11 months ago
                                                  • Acid rain can be avoided through emissions controls and better air pollution management. The burning of fossil fuels such as coal and gasoline releases sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere, which then react with water vapor to form acid rain. Reducing such emissions can help to significantly reduce acid rain. Other measures such as reforestation, building wind farms, and increased utilization of renewable energy sources can also contribute to reducing acid rain.
                                                    • fortunata
                                                      Which of the following is responsible for acid rains?
                                                      11 months ago
                                                    • Acid rain is caused by the emission of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere, which react with water, oxygen, and other substances to form sulfuric and nitric acids.
                                                      • Mac
                                                        Which chemical is responsible for acid rain?
                                                        11 months ago
                                                      • Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is the primary chemical responsible for acid rain. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are also a major contributor.
                                                        • pablo
                                                          Which oxides are responsible for acid rain?
                                                          11 months ago
                                                        • The two main oxides that are responsible for acid rain are sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
                                                          • laura huber
                                                            What are the major compounds responsible for acid rain?
                                                            11 months ago
                                                          • The two major compounds responsible for acid rain are sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx).
                                                            • mungo brown
                                                              What measures do you follow to prevent acid rain?
                                                              11 months ago
                                                              1. Reducing Air Pollution: The primary cause of acid rain is the emission of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere due to human activities. Reducing the emission of these pollutants can directly reduce the occurrence of acid rain. Governments can enact laws, regulations and incentives to reduce the emission of these pollutants.
                                                              2. Installing Pollution Control Equipment: Pollution control equipment such as scrubbers can be installed in factories and power plants to trap sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides from the flue gases.
                                                              3. Planting Trees: Planting more trees can help to reduce the emission of pollutants in the atmosphere. Trees act as natural air filters and can absorb sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and other pollutants. Planting trees near areas that are prone to acid rain can help to reduce the effects of acid rain.
                                                              4. Switching to Cleaner Energy Sources: Using cleaner energy sources such as wind and solar can also help to reduce the amount of pollutants emitted into the atmosphere. This can reduce the occurrence of acid rain.
                                                              5. Monitoring Air Quality: Local, state and federal governments should monitor air quality in areas that are prone to acid rain. This can help to identify areas where emissions are high and can help to target specific areas for intervention.
                                                              • mantissa
                                                                What creates acid rain?
                                                                12 months ago
                                                              • Acid rain is created when pollutants, such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, are released into the atmosphere and react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals. This reaction creates a mild form of sulfuric acid and nitric acid, which then fall to the earth in the form of rain, snow, fog, or mist.
                                                                • VIRPI
                                                                  What is one of the greatest contributors to the cause of acid rain?
                                                                  12 months ago
                                                                • The greatest contributor to the cause of acid rain is the burning of fossil fuels, such as coal and oil. Emissions from fossil fuel combustion contain sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) gases, which get into the atmosphere and react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. These acids are deposited on the ground in the form of acid rain.
                                                                  • girmay
                                                                    What type of pollution is the greatest cause of acid rain?
                                                                    12 months ago
                                                                  • The greatest cause of acid rain is emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). These pollutants are released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are burned, and react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids, which are the main components of acid rain.
                                                                    • amilcare
                                                                      Which reaction accounts for the fact that the ph of rain is naturally slightly acidic?
                                                                      12 months ago
                                                                    • The dissolution of carbon dioxide (CO2) in rain is the reaction that accounts for the fact that the pH of rain is naturally slightly acidic. The reaction is: CO2 + H2O -> H2CO3 + H+
                                                                      • erik
                                                                        What are the primary compounds found in acid rain?
                                                                        1 year ago
                                                                      • The primary compounds found in acid rain are sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and carbonic acid. These acids are caused by the reaction between water molecules in the atmosphere and pollutants released by burning fossil fuels.
                                                                        • asmarina
                                                                          Why does acid rain result from fossil fuel consumption?
                                                                          1 year ago
                                                                        • Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids. These emissions are released by burning fossil fuels such as coal and oil. Therefore, acid rain is a direct result of fossil fuel consumption.
                                                                          • teodros
                                                                            Which of the following ph measurements of rainwater would indicate acid precipitation?
                                                                            1 year ago
                                                                          • A pH measurement below 5.0 would indicate acid precipitation.
                                                                            • caoimhe
                                                                              Is the formation of acid rain a chemical change?
                                                                              1 year ago
                                                                            • Yes, the formation of acid rain is a chemical change. This occurs when sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide gases emit from factories, vehicles, and power plants. These gases react with water molecules in the atmosphere to produce sulfuric acid and nitric acid. The resulting acid rain has a significantly lower pH than normal rainwater.
                                                                              • kenneth
                                                                                Which of the following are primary pollutants that eventually result in acid deposition?
                                                                                1 year ago
                                                                              • 1.Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) 2.Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) 3.Ammonia (NH3) 4.Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) 1.Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) 2.Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) 3.Ammonia (NH3)
                                                                                • vitale
                                                                                  Which disease is caused by acid rain?
                                                                                  1 year ago
                                                                                • Acid rain can cause a number of environmental problems, such as harm to plants, lakes and other aquatic ecosystems, erosion of buildings and statues, and acidification of soils. It can also contribute to the health effects of air pollution, including respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.
                                                                                  • Shishay
                                                                                    What are the acids present in the acid rain?
                                                                                    1 year ago
                                                                                  • The two main acids present in acid rain are sulfurous acid (H2SO3) and nitric acid (HNO3). These acids form when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emitted from burning fossil fuels react with water molecules in the atmosphere.
                                                                                    • maxima
                                                                                      How is acid rain measured?
                                                                                      1 year ago
                                                                                    • Acid rain is measured by its pH level. The lower the pH level, the higher the acidity. Most acid rain has a pH level between 4.2 and 4.4. Additionally, acid rain can be measured by its concentrations of acid gases, such as sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NOx).
                                                                                      • prisca
                                                                                        Which region is the least affected by acid rain?
                                                                                        1 year ago
                                                                                      • The least affected region by acid rain is generally considered to be the western United States and Canada. These regions have the lowest levels of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide in the atmosphere, as well as more alkaline soils, which help to neutralize acid rain.
                                                                                        • primrose
                                                                                          Which of the following is not attributed to acid rain?
                                                                                          1 year ago
                                                                                        • Deforestation
                                                                                          • petra
                                                                                            Which vegetation zone is located in the areas affected by the most acidic rain?
                                                                                            1 year ago
                                                                                          • The areas affected by the most acidic rain are generally located in temperate forest and grassland vegetation zones.
                                                                                            • blanda
                                                                                              What does acid rain do to your body?
                                                                                              1 year ago
                                                                                            • Acid rain does not directly affect the human body. However, acid rain can damage plants and animals that people eat, and if ingested, can result in health problems. Acid rain can also contaminate drinking water, leading to digestive disorders and other health problems, especially for infants and young children. In extreme cases, the long-term exposure to high levels of acid rain can cause respiratory illnesses and other health problems.
                                                                                              • ariam
                                                                                                What is acid precipitation and how does it occur?
                                                                                                1 year ago
                                                                                              • Acid precipitation is precipitation that has been made acidic by certain pollutants in the atmosphere. These pollutants react with water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids, which then fall to the ground in the form of rain, snow, sleet, or hail. Common pollutants that contribute to acid precipitation include sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide from burning of fossil fuels, and ammonia from agricultural by-products.
                                                                                                • merry goold
                                                                                                  What type of buildings and monuments are most susceptible to acid damage?
                                                                                                  1 year ago
                                                                                                • Buildings and monuments made from limestone, marble, and other carbonate-based materials are particularly susceptible to acid damage. These materials are chemically reactive, and easily dissolve when exposed to acidic solutions, such as those found in pollution and rainwater. Additionally, buildings and monuments made of metal and ceramic can also be corroded by acid damage.
                                                                                                  • gregorio
                                                                                                    Which of the following results from acid deposition?
                                                                                                    1 year ago
                                                                                                  • Acid deposition can result in soil acidification, decreased crop yields, and damage to buildings, statues, and monuments. It can also contaminate water bodies and make them toxic to aquatic life, and damage forests by making soils unsuitable for plant life.
                                                                                                    • filibert
                                                                                                      When was acid rain first discovered?
                                                                                                      1 year ago
                                                                                                    • Acid rain was first identified as a problem in the late 18th century by a Scottish chemist named Dr. Robert Angus Smith. He noticed that rainwater in Manchester, England was increasing in acidity over time and coined the term "acid rain" in 1872.
                                                                                                      • simona
                                                                                                        Which of the following is a consequence of acidic deposition?
                                                                                                        1 year ago
                                                                                                      • increased levels of nitrogen and sulfur in soil and water
                                                                                                        • blaine gordon
                                                                                                          What are the effects of acid rain on rocks?
                                                                                                          1 year ago
                                                                                                        • Acid rain can have a corrosive effect on rocks because of its high acidity. It can erode rocks over time, causing them to dissolve and break down. Acid rain can also cause minerals in rocks to leach out, making them weaker and less resistant to weathering and erosion. Acid rain can also strip soil particles from the surface of rocks, leaving them bare and exposed. This can lead to further weathering and erosion, as well as increased vulnerability to the damaging effects of wind, rain, and temperature changes.
                                                                                                          • faruz
                                                                                                            Which type of chemical weathering is enhanced by acid rain?
                                                                                                            1 year ago
                                                                                                          • Acidic dissolution.
                                                                                                            • hildigrim
                                                                                                              Which acid is present in maximum amount in acid rain?
                                                                                                              1 year ago
                                                                                                            • The most abundant acid present in acid rain is sulfuric acid, which is formed when sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides react with water molecules in the atmosphere.
                                                                                                              • MYLIE
                                                                                                                What is the source of acid rain?
                                                                                                                1 year ago
                                                                                                              • Acid rain is caused by sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions from burning fossil fuels. These chemicals react with water, oxygen and other substances in the air to form sulfuric and nitric acids, which then fall to earth as rain.
                                                                                                                • belisarius hogpen
                                                                                                                  What is one thing not impacted by acid rain.?
                                                                                                                  1 year ago
                                                                                                                • Human health
                                                                                                                  • malva
                                                                                                                    Which of the following is an effect of high levels of acid deposition?
                                                                                                                    1 year ago
                                                                                                                  • Damage to forests
                                                                                                                    • amelia
                                                                                                                      How does acid rain work?
                                                                                                                      1 year ago
                                                                                                                    • Acid rain occurs when sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released into the atmosphere and then come into contact with water droplets. These chemicals react with the water droplets to produce sulfuric and nitric acids. These acids then fall back to Earth as rain, snow, fog, or mist, despositing the acid onto land and water. The acid rain further reacts with the soils and rocks, making them more acidic. This causes a decrease in the pH level of the water and soil and can cause damage to plants, animals, and other ecosystems.
                                                                                                                      • elvin thomason
                                                                                                                        What is the chemical reaction for acid rain?
                                                                                                                        1 year ago
                                                                                                                      • Acid rain is a type of chemical reaction between sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) in the atmosphere and water molecules in the clouds to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3).
                                                                                                                        • Belladonna
                                                                                                                          How can we stop acid rain?
                                                                                                                          1 year ago
                                                                                                                          1. Reduce emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides from industrial sources by installing pollution control technologies, switching to cleaner fuels, and improving burning techniques.
                                                                                                                          2. Use low-sulfur coal for power plants.
                                                                                                                          3. Increase reforestation efforts to capture and store atmospheric carbon dioxide and reduce air pollution.
                                                                                                                          4. Utilize scrubbers and other technologies to reduce acid rain-causing pollutants from smokestacks.
                                                                                                                          5. Use agricultural techniques that reduce soil erosion and runoff of nitrogen and phosphorus-containing fertilizers.
                                                                                                                          6. Encourage alternative transportation methods such as walking, biking and public transit.
                                                                                                                          • Milo
                                                                                                                            How has acid rain affected germany?
                                                                                                                            1 year ago
                                                                                                                          • Acid rain has had a significant impact on Germany's environment, with the country being particularly affected by acidification. Germany is one of several European countries that have seen a decrease in the pH levels of its soil and water due to acid rain. The acid rain has caused damage to the area's water resources, forests, and wildlife. In addition, the acid rain has caused a decrease in the quality of air in some areas, leading to health risks and resource depletion. In response, Germany has made substantial investments in reducing emissions and cleaning up its environment.
                                                                                                                            • veijo
                                                                                                                              Where does acid rain occur most often?
                                                                                                                              1 year ago
                                                                                                                            • Acid rain is most commonly found in industrialized areas, where the pollutants from factories and vehicles react with the moisture in the atmosphere to form acid rain. It is also more common in regions with higher atmospheric humidity, such as the eastern United States, Eastern Canada, and parts of Europe and Asia.
                                                                                                                              • fulgenzia barese
                                                                                                                                Which are most responsible for creating acid rain pollution?
                                                                                                                                1 year ago
                                                                                                                              • The primary sources of acid rain pollution are fossil fuel combustion from power plants, vehicles, and other industrial activities. The burning of coal and other fossil fuels releases sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide into the atmosphere, which then react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. These acids are then carried by wind and air currents, eventually leading to acid rain.
                                                                                                                                • vanessa hay
                                                                                                                                  Why is acid rain a major biological concern?
                                                                                                                                  1 year ago
                                                                                                                                • Acid rain is a major biological concern because it can have a significant effect on the health of plants and animals. It can cause acidic soils which lead to plant death, decreased food production, and degraded water quality. Acid rain can also damage fish and other wildlife habitats by directly affecting their water sources. In addition, acid rain can damage the protective covering of plants and animals, thus leading to problems such as reduced growth, reduced fertility, and even death.
                                                                                                                                  • amanda
                                                                                                                                    Is an important precursor to acid rain?
                                                                                                                                    1 year ago
                                                                                                                                  • sulfur dioxide
                                                                                                                                    • adaldrida
                                                                                                                                      How to reduce acid deposition?
                                                                                                                                      1 year ago
                                                                                                                                      1. Reduce sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions: One of the most effective ways to reduce acid deposition is to reduce the amount of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide released into the atmosphere. This can be done by switching to clean energy sources, such as solar and wind energy, and by utilizing advanced pollution control systems.
                                                                                                                                      2. Plant trees and other vegetation: Planting trees and other vegetation can help reduce acid deposition. This is because they absorb and neutralize the acids in the atmosphere.
                                                                                                                                      3. Think of smarter fuel sources: One of the other ways to reduce acid deposition is to use smarter fuel sources. Using fuels with lower sulfur content and switching from carbon-intensive fuels to cleaner, greener alternatives can have a significant impact on acid deposition.
                                                                                                                                      4. Practice proper agricultural methods: Proper agricultural practices are also important for reducing acid deposition. For example, avoiding over-fertilization can help reduce nitrous oxide emissions and help prevent acid deposition.
                                                                                                                                      5. Use surface covers: Covering surfaces with materials such as rocks, gravel, or clay can help reduce runoff of nitrates and phosphates into rivers and streams, which then get transported into the atmosphere and contribute to acid deposition.
                                                                                                                                      • belba
                                                                                                                                        How did the taj mahal change after acid rain?
                                                                                                                                        1 year ago
                                                                                                                                      • Acid rain has caused significant damage to the Taj Mahal. The marble and sandstone structures have been corroded by the acidic precipitation, resulting in discoloration, cracking, and staining. The sulfur dioxide and other pollutants in the rain have also caused the marble to become pitted and rough. The acidic rain also affects the gardens and other foliage surrounding the Taj Mahal, as well as other monuments in the area.
                                                                                                                                        • RAIMONDO
                                                                                                                                          What two gases are the primary causes of acid deposition?
                                                                                                                                          1 year ago
                                                                                                                                        • Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx).
                                                                                                                                          • Eloise Maclean
                                                                                                                                            What are the causes of acid rain in germany?
                                                                                                                                            1 year ago
                                                                                                                                            1. Combustion of fossil fuels - Burning of coal, oil, and other fossil fuels releases nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide into the air, which can form into acid rain when they mix with moisture.
                                                                                                                                            2. Industrial processes - Many industrial activities, such as manufacturing steel and cement, can release sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere, contributing to acid rain.
                                                                                                                                            3. Vehicles - Car and truck exhaust contain nitrogen oxides, which can contribute to acid rain.
                                                                                                                                            4. Natural gas combustion - Natural gas combustion releases nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide, which can contribute to acid rain.
                                                                                                                                            5. Volcanic activity - Volcanic eruptions release sulfur dioxide and other chemicals into the atmosphere. When these chemicals mix with moisture, they can form acid rain.
                                                                                                                                            • kai
                                                                                                                                              What are the major sources of acid deposition?
                                                                                                                                              1 year ago
                                                                                                                                            • The major sources of acid deposition include emissions from power plants, automobiles and other forms of transportation, industrial processes, and natural sources such as volcanoes. Acid deposition, also known as acid rain, occurs when sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides react with water and other chemicals in the atmosphere to form sulfuric and nitric acids, which then fall to the ground as rain, snow or fog.
                                                                                                                                              • sophia
                                                                                                                                                Which of the following is not an effect of acid deposition?
                                                                                                                                                1 year ago
                                                                                                                                              • Increased plant growth
                                                                                                                                                • Sasha
                                                                                                                                                  Which of the following is a consequence of acid deposition?
                                                                                                                                                  1 year ago
                                                                                                                                                • Decreased soil pH, damage to trees, decreased water quality, and corrosion of buildings and monuments.
                                                                                                                                                  • Robyn Maclean
                                                                                                                                                    What is the best solution to the problem of increasing acid deposition?
                                                                                                                                                    1 year ago
                                                                                                                                                  • The most effective solution to the problem of increasing acid deposition is to reduce emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, which are the primary sources of acid rain. This can be done by switching to cleaner energy sources such as wind and solar, improving emissions controls on power plants and factories, and promoting more efficient transportation systems. Additionally, policies such as cap-and-trade, emissions trading, emissions taxes, and subsidies for green technology can help reduce emissions of these pollutants. Finally, increasing the uptake of pollutants from the atmosphere through forests, wetlands, and other land uses can help reduce acid deposition and its damaging effects.
                                                                                                                                                    • annett
                                                                                                                                                      Which anthropogenic pollutants are implicated in the formation of most acidic precipitation?
                                                                                                                                                      1 year ago
                                                                                                                                                    • The most commonly implicated anthropogenic pollutants in the formation of most acidic precipitation are sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
                                                                                                                                                      • kalevi
                                                                                                                                                        What is the difference between acid rain and acid deposition?
                                                                                                                                                        1 year ago
                                                                                                                                                      • Acid rain is rain that has been made more acidic than usual by the presence of pollutants in the atmosphere, such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Acid deposition, on the other hand, is the broader term for when acidic particles and gases are released into the atmosphere, resulting in the accumulation of acidic substances on the ground, plants, and aquatic habitats. Acid deposition can take the form of rain, snow, fog, and even dust.
                                                                                                                                                        • aatifa
                                                                                                                                                          When was the term acid rain first used?
                                                                                                                                                          1 year ago
                                                                                                                                                        • The first known use of the term “acid rain” was in a paper written in 1872 by English chemist Robert Angus Smith.